Madagascar – Wikipedia

country in the amerind Ocean
Coordinates :
Madagascar ( ; Malagasy : Madagasikara ), formally the Republic of Madagascar ( Malagasy : Repoblikan’i Madagasikara, Malagasy pronunciation : [ republiˈkʲan madaɡasˈkʲarə̥ ] ; french : République de Madagascar ), and previously known as the Malagasy Republic, is an island nation in the indian Ocean, approximately 400 kilometres ( 250 miles ) off the coast of East Africa across the Mozambique Channel. At 592,800 hearty kilometres ( 228,900 sq nautical mile ) madagascar is the earth ‘s second-largest island state, after Indonesia. [ 14 ] The nation consists of the island of Madagascar ( the fourth-largest island in the world ) and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Following the prehistoric dissolution of the supercontinent Gondwana, Madagascar separate from the amerind subcontinent around 88 million years ago, allowing native plants and animals to evolve in relative isolation. consequently, Madagascar is a biodiversity hot spot ; over 90 % of its wildlife is found nowhere else on Earth. The island ‘s diverse ecosystems and alone wildlife are threatened by the impingement of the quickly growing human population and early environmental threats. Human village of Madagascar occurred during or before the mid first millenium AD [ 15 ] by austronesian peoples, arriving on outrigger canoes from contemporary Indonesia. [ 16 ] These were joined around the ninth hundred AD by Bantu migrants crossing the Mozambique Channel from East Africa. [ 17 ] other groups continued to settle on Madagascar over fourth dimension, each one making last contributions to Malagasy cultural life sentence. The Malagasy cultural group is much divided into 18 or more subgroups, of which the largest are the Merina of the central highlands.

Until the late eighteenth century, the island of Madagascar was ruled by a break up assortment of shifting sociopolitical alliances. Beginning in the early nineteenth century, most of the island was unify and ruled as the Kingdom of Madagascar by a series of Merina nobles. The monarchy ended in 1897 when the island was absorbed into the french colonial empire, from which the island gained independence in 1960. The autonomous state of Madagascar has since undergo four major constituent periods, termed republics. Since 1992, the nation has officially been governed as a constitutional democracy from its das kapital at Antananarivo. however, in a 2009 political crisis, president Marc Ravalomanana was made to resign and presidential power was transferred in March 2009 to Andry Rajoelina. Constitutional administration was restored in January 2014, when Hery Rajaonarimampianina was named president of the united states following a 2013 election deemed fair and diaphanous by the external residential district. Madagascar is a penis of the United Nations, the African Union ( AU ), the southerly African Development Community ( SADC ), and the Organisation Internationale de la Francophonie. Madagascar belongs to the group of least evolve countries, according to the United Nations. [ 18 ] Malagasy and French are both official languages of the state. The majority of the population adheres to Christianity, traditional belief, or an amalgamation of both. ecotourism and farming, paired with greater investments in education, health, and individual enterprise, are key elements of Madagascar ‘s development strategy. Under Ravalomanana, these investments produced hearty economic growth, but the benefits were not evenly spread throughout the population, producing tensions over the increasing cost of living and declining exist standards among the inadequate and some segments of the middle class. As of 2017, the economy has been weakened by the 2009–2013 political crisis, and choice of life remains low for the majority of the Malagasy population .

etymology [edit ]

In the Malagasy language, the island of Madagascar is called Madagasikara ( Malagasy pronunciation : [ madaɡasʲˈkʲarə̥ ] ) and its people are referred to as Malagasy. [ 19 ] [ 20 ] The island ‘s appellation “ Madagascar ” is not of local origin but rather was popularized in the Middle Ages by Europeans. [ 21 ] The name Madageiscar was first recorded in the memoirs of 13th-century venetian explorer Marco Polo as a corrupt transliteration of the name Mogadishu, the Somali port with which Marco Polo had confused the island. [ 22 ] On St. Laurence ‘s Day in 1500, portuguese internet explorer Diogo Dias landed on the island and named it São Lourenço. Marco Polo ‘s name was preferred and popularized on Renaissance maps. No single Malagasy-language name predating Madagasikara appears to have been used by the local population to refer to the island, although some communities had their own name for part or all of the nation they inhabited. [ 22 ]

geography [edit ]

At 592,800 square kilometres ( 228,900 sq security service ), [ 23 ] Madagascar is the world ‘s 47th largest nation, [ 24 ] the 2nd largest island area [ 14 ] and the fourth-largest island. [ 23 ] The state lies largely between latitudes 12°S and 26°S, and longitudes 43°E and 51°E. [ 25 ] Neighboring islands include the french territory of Réunion and the country of Mauritius to the east, a well as the state of matter of Comoros and the french territory of Mayotte to the north west. The nearest mainland state is Mozambique, located to the west. The prehistoric dissolution of the supercontinent Gondwana resulted in the interval of East Gondwana ( comprising Madagascar, Antarctica, Australia and the indian subcontinent ) and West Gondwana ( Africa–South America ) during the Jurassic time period. around 185 million years ago. The Indo-Madagascar landmass separated from Antarctica and Australia around 125 million years ago [ 26 ] and Madagascar separated from the indian landmass about 88 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous. [ 27 ] This long history of legal separation from other continents has allowed plants and animals on the island to evolve in relative isolation . The terrace paddy fields of the central highlands of Madagascar ( left ) give way to tropical rain forest along the eastern coast ( right ) Along the length of the easterly coast runs a specialize and steep escarpment containing much of the island ‘s remaining tropical lowland forest. To the west of this ridge lies a tableland in the plaza of the island ranging in altitude from 750 to 1,500 molarity ( 2,460 to 4,920 foot ) above ocean level. These cardinal highlands, traditionally the fatherland of the Merina people and the location of their historic capital at Antananarivo, are the most dumbly populate share of the island and are characterized by terrace, rice-growing valleys lying between grassy hills and patches of the subhumid forests that once covered the upland region. To the west of the highlands, the increasingly arid terrain gradually slopes gloomy to the Mozambique Channel and mangrove swamps along the seashore. [ 28 ] The grassy plains that dominate the western landscape are dotted with rocky massif ( left ), patches of deciduous afforest, and baobab trees ( right ), while the confederacy is characterized by semi-desert and barbed forests Madagascar ‘s highest peaks emanation from three big highland massifs : Maromokotro 2,876 thousand ( 9,436 foot ) in the Tsaratanana Massif is the island ‘s highest point, followed by Boby Peak 2,658 m ( 8,720 foot ) in the Andringitra Massif, and Tsiafajavona 2,643 molarity ( 8,671 foot ) in the Ankaratra Massif. To the east, the Canal des Pangalanes is a chain of human-made and natural lakes connected by canals built by the french merely inland from the east coast and running analogue to it for some 600 km ( 370 michigan ). [ 29 ] The western and southerly sides, which lie in the rain shadow of the cardinal highlands, are home to dry deciduous forests, spinous forests, and deserts and xeric shrublands. Due to their lower population densities, Madagascar ‘s dry deciduous forests have been better preserved than the easterly rain forests or the master woodlands of the cardinal tableland. The westerly slide features many protect harbors, but silting is a major trouble caused by sediment from the high levels of inland erosion carried by rivers crossing the broad western plains. [ 29 ]

climate [edit ]

The combination of southeastern trade wind winds and northwestern monsoons produces a hot showery season ( November–April ) with frequently destructive cyclones, and a relatively cooler dry season ( May–October ). Rain cloud originate over the amerind Ocean fire a lot of their moisture over the island ‘s eastern coast ; the heavy precipitation supports the area ‘s rainforest ecosystem. The cardinal highlands are both drier and cool while the west is drier silent, and a semi-arid climate prevails in the southwest and southern home of the island. [ 28 ]
Biogeographic timetable of Madagascar over the last 200 million years tropical cyclones lawsuit damage to infrastructure and local economies american samoa well as loss of animation. [ 30 ] In 2004, Cyclone Gafilo became the strongest cyclone always recorded to hit Madagascar. The storm killed 172 people, left 214,260 dispossessed [ 31 ] and caused more than US $ 250 million in damage. [ 32 ]

ecology [edit ]

As a result of the island ‘s long isolation from neighboring continents, Madagascar is home to versatile plants and animals found nowhere else on Earth. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] approximately 90 % of all plant and animal species found in Madagascar are endemic. [ 35 ] This distinctive ecology has led some ecologists to refer to Madagascar as the “ eighth celibate ”, [ 36 ] and the island has been classified by Conservation International as a biodiversity hot spot. [ 33 ] Madagascar is classed as one of 17 megadiverse countries. The country is home to seven planetary ecoregions : Madagascar lowland forests, Madagascar subhumid forests, Madagascar dry deciduous forests, Madagascar ericoid thickets, Madagascar barbed thickets, Madagascar succulent woodlands, and Madagascar mangroves. [ 37 ] More than 80 percentage of Madagascar ‘s 14,883 implant species are found nowhere else in the worldly concern, including five plant families. [ 38 ] The kin Didiereaceae, composed of four genus and 11 species, is limited to the spinous forests of southwest Madagascar. [ 28 ] Four-fifths of the world ‘s Pachypodium species are autochthonal to the island. [ 39 ] three-fourths [ 40 ] of Madagascar ‘s 860 [ 38 ] orchid species are found here alone, as are six of the global ‘s nine baobab species. [ 41 ] The island is home to around 170 palm species, three times a many as on all of mainland Africa ; 165 of them are endemic. [ 40 ] Many native plant species are used as herbal remedies for a variety show of afflictions. The drugs vinblastine [ 42 ] [ 43 ] and vincristine [ 42 ] [ 44 ] are vinca alkaloids, [ 45 ] [ 46 ] used to treat Hodgkin ‘s disease, [ 47 ] leukemia, [ 48 ] and early cancers, [ 49 ] were derived from the Madagascar periwinkle. [ 50 ] [ 51 ] The traveler ‘s palm, known locally as ravinala [ 52 ] and autochthonal to the easterly rain forests, [ 53 ] is highly iconic of Madagascar and is featured in the national emblem angstrom well as the Air Madagascar logo. [ 54 ]
[55] The ring-tailed lemur is one of over 100 know species and subspecies of lemur found only in Madagascar. Like its vegetation, Madagascar ‘s fauna is divers and exhibits a high rate of indigenousness. Lemurs have been characterized as “ Madagascar ‘s flagship mammal species ” by Conservation International. [ 33 ] In the absence of monkeys and other competitors, these primates have adapted to a wide range of habitats and diversified into numerous species. As of 2012, there were formally 103 species and subspecies of lemur, [ 56 ] 39 of which were described by zoologists between 2000 and 2008. [ 57 ] They are about all classified ad as rare, vulnerable, or endangered. At least 17 species of lemur have become extinct since humans arrived on Madagascar, all of which were larger than the surviving lemur species. [ 58 ] A numeral of other mammals, including the cat-like pit, are endemic to Madagascar. Over 300 species of birds have been recorded on the island, of which over 60 percentage ( including four families and 42 genus ) are endemic. [ 33 ] The few families and genus of reptile that have reached Madagascar have diversified into more than 260 species, with over 90 percentage of these being endemic [ 59 ] ( including one endemic family ). [ 33 ] The island is home to two-thirds of the world ‘s chamaeleon species, [ 59 ] including the smallest known, [ 60 ] and researchers have proposed that Madagascar may be the lineage of all chameleons. endemic fish of Madagascar include two families, 15 genus and over 100 species, primarily inhabiting the island ‘s fresh water lakes and rivers. Although invertebrates remain ill studied in Madagascar, researchers have found high rates of indigenousness among the know species. All 651 species of sublunar escargot are autochthonal, as are a majority of the island ‘s butterflies, scarab beetles, lacewings, spiders, and dragonflies. [ 33 ]

environmental issues [edit ]

Tavy ( slash-and-burn ) end of native afforest habitat is widespread ( Top ), causing massive erosion ( Bottom ). Madagascar ‘s change fauna and flora are endangered by human activeness. [ 61 ] Since the arrival of humans around 2,350 years ago, Madagascar has lost more than 90 percentage of its original forest. [ 62 ] This afforest passing is largely fueled by tavy ( “ fat ” ), a traditional slash-and-burn agrarian drill imported to Madagascar by the earliest settlers. [ 63 ] Malagasy farmers embrace and perpetuate the practice not only for its hardheaded benefits as an agricultural proficiency, but for its cultural associations with prosperity, health and reverence ancestral custom-made ( fomba malagasy ). [ 64 ] As homo population concentration rose on the island, deforestation accelerated beginning around 1,400 years ago. [ 65 ] By the sixteenth century, the cardinal highlands had been largely cleared of their original forests. [ 63 ] More late contributors to the passing of forest screen include the growth in cattle herd size since their presentation around 1,000 years ago, a cover reliance on charcoal as a fuel for cook, and the increased bulge of coffee as a cash craw over the past century. [ 66 ] Madagascar had a 2019 Forest Landscape Integrity Index mean score of 4.63/10, ranking it 119th globally out of 172 countries. [ 67 ] According to a conservative estimate, about 40 percentage of the island ‘s original afforest cover was lost from the 1950s to 2000, with a thin of remaining forest areas by 80 percentage. [ 68 ] In accession to traditional agrarian practice, wildlife conservation is challenged by the illicit harvest of protect forests, deoxyadenosine monophosphate well as the state-sanctioned harvest of precious woods within national parks. Although banned by then-President Marc Ravalomanana from 2000 to 2009, the collection of small quantities of cherished timber from national parks was re-authorized in January 2009 and dramatically intensified under the administration of Andry Rajoelina as a key source of state revenues to offset cuts in donor digest following Ravalomanana ‘s oust. [ 69 ] encroaching species have besides been introduced by human populations. Following the 2014 discovery in Madagascar of the asian common frog, a proportional of a frog species that has sternly harmed wildlife in Australia since the 1930s, researchers warned the frog could “ wreak havoc on the area ‘s unique animal. ” [ 70 ] Habitat end and hunting have threatened many of Madagascar ‘s endemic species or driven them to extinction. The island ‘s elephant birds, a family of endemic giant ratites, became extinct in the seventeenth century or earlier, most credibly because of human search of adult birds and poaching of their big eggs for food. [ 71 ] Numerous giant lemur species vanished with the arrival of homo settlers to the island, while others became extinct over the class of the centuries as a growing homo population put greater pressures on lemur habitats and, among some populations, increased the rate of lemur hunting for food. [ 72 ] A July 2012 appraisal found that the exploitation of lifelike resources since 2009 has had dire consequences for the island ‘s wildlife : 90 percentage of lemur species were found to be threatened with extinction, the highest proportion of any mammal group. Of these, 23 species were classified as critically endangered. By contrast, a former study in 2008 had found merely 38 percentage of lemur species were at risk of extinction. [ 56 ] In 2003, Ravalomanana announced the Durban Vision, an enterprise to more than triple the island ‘s protect natural areas to over 60,000 km2 ( 23,000 sq nautical mile ) or 10 percentage of Madagascar ‘s land airfoil. As of 2011, areas protected by the department of state included five Strict nature Reserves ( Réserves Naturelles Intégrales ), 21 Wildlife Reserves ( Réserves Spéciales ) and 21 National Parks ( Parcs Nationaux ). [ 73 ] In 2007 six of the national parks were declared a joint World Heritage Site under the diagnose Rainforests of the Atsinanana. These parks are Marojejy, Masoala, Ranomafana, Zahamena, Andohahela and Andringitra. [ 74 ] Local timber merchants are harvesting scarce species of rosewood trees from protect rainforests within Marojejy National Park and exporting the wood to China for the production of luxury furniture and melodious instruments. [ 75 ] To raise public awareness of Madagascar ‘s environmental challenges, the Wildlife Conservation Society opened an exhibit entitled “ Madagascar! “ in June 2008 at the Bronx Zoo in New York. [ 76 ] Mid-2021 marked the get down of the 2021 Madagascar food crisis which, due to a severe drought, caused hundreds of thousands of people to face food insecurity and over one million people were on the verge of a dearth .

history [edit ]

early period [edit ]

Malagasy ancestry reflects a blend of Southeast Asian and Bantu (East African) roots. traditionally, archaeologists have estimated that the earliest settlers arrived in consecutive waves in outrigger canoes from Borneo, possibly throughout the period between 350 BCE and 550 CE, while others are timid about dates earlier than 250 CE. In either encase, these dates make Madagascar one of the latest major landmass on worldly concern to be settled by humans, predating the settlement of Iceland and New Zealand. [ 77 ] It is proposed that Ma’anyan people were brought as laborers and slaves by Malay and javanese people in their trade fleets to Madagascar. [ 78 ] [ 79 ] [ 80 ] Dates earlier then the mid-first millenium AD are not strongly supported. [ 15 ] Upon arrival, early settlers practiced slash-and-burn agriculture to clear the coastal rainforests for cultivation. The first settlers encountered Madagascar ‘s abundance of megafauna, including elephantine lemurs, elephant birds, giant pit and the Malagasy hippopotamus, which have since become extinct because of search and habitat end. [ 81 ] By 600 CE, groups of these early settlers had begun clearing the forests of the central highlands. [ 82 ] Arab traders first reached the island between the 7th and 9th centuries. [ 83 ] A wave of Bantu -speaking migrants from southeast Africa arrived around 1000 CE. [ 84 ] South indian Tamil merchants arrived around 11th century. They introduced the zebu, a type of long-horned sleep together cattle, which they kept in large herds. [ 63 ] Irrigated paddy fields were developed in the central upland Betsileo Kingdom and were extended with terrace paddies throughout the adjacent Kingdom of Imerina a century late. [ 82 ] The rising volume of land cultivation and the ever-increasing demand for zebu herbage had largely transformed the central highlands from a forest ecosystem to grassland by the seventeenth hundred. [ 63 ] The oral histories of the Merina people, who may have arrived in the central highlands between 600 and 1,000 years ago, identify encountering an established population they called the Vazimba. credibly the descendants of an earlier and less technologically advanced austronesian village roll, the Vazimba were assimilated or expelled from the highlands by the Merina kings Andriamanelo, Ralambo and Andrianjaka in the 16th and early seventeenth centuries. [ 85 ] today, the spirits of the Vazimba are revered as tompontany ( ancestral masters of the land ) by many traditional Malagasy communities. [ 86 ]
Madagascar was an significant transoceanic trade hub connecting ports of the amerind Ocean in the early on centuries following human colony. The written history of Madagascar began with the Arabs, who established trading posts along the northwest coast by at least the tenth hundred and introduced Islam, the Arabic script ( used to transcribe the Malagasy linguistic process in a shape of writing known as sorabe ), Arab astrology, and other cultural elements. [ 30 ]

portuguese [edit ]

european contact began in 1500, when the Portuguese sea captain Diogo Dias sighted the island, while participating in the 2nd Armada of the Portuguese India Armadas. [ 23 ] Matatana was the first portuguese colonization on the south coast, 10 kilometer west of Fort Dauphin. In 1508, settlers there built a loom, a small greenwich village, and a stone column. This settlement was established in 1513 at the behest of the viceroy of portuguese India, Jeronimo de Azevedo. [ 87 ]
Matatana, represented in a movie of 1613, regarding a liquidation of the begin of the sixteenth hundred, in the Book of Humberto Leitão ” Contacts continued from the 1550s. respective colonization and conversion missions were ordered by King João III and by the Viceroy of India, including one in 1553 by Baltazar Lobo de Sousa. In that deputation, according to detail descriptions by chroniclers Diogo do Couto and João de Barros, emissaries reached the inland via rivers and bays, exchanging goods and even converting one of the local kings. [ 88 ]

french [edit ]

The french established trade posts along the east slide in the late seventeenth century. [ 30 ] From about 1774 to 1824, Madagascar gained bulge among pirates and european traders, particularly those involved in the trans-Atlantic slave trade. The modest island of Nosy Boroha off the northeastern coast of Madagascar has been proposed by some historians as the locate of the legendary pirate utopia of Libertalia. [ 89 ] many european sailors were shipwrecked on the coasts of the island, among them Robert Drury, whose journal is one of the few written depictions of life sentence in southerly Madagascar during the eighteenth century. [ 90 ] The wealth generated by maritime deal spurred the rise of organized kingdoms on the island, some of which had grown quite powerful by the seventeenth century. [ 91 ] Among these were the Betsimisaraka alliance of the eastern slide and the Sakalava chiefdoms of Menabe and Boina on the west coast. The Kingdom of Imerina, located in the central highlands with its capital at the royal palace of Antananarivo, emerged at around the same time under the leadership of King Andriamanelo. [ 92 ] In 1890, Madagascar was officially recognized as a french protectorate. The french, tidal bore to exercise control over their new-found colony, brought workers, ambassadors, and soldiers to their trade wind posts in west Madagascar. [ 91 ] Madagascar, however, refused to submit to the alien country ‘s rule. [ 93 ] then, in January 1895, french warships landed on the coast of Madagascar. The french ‘s massacre ended at the capital, Antananrivo, seeing thousands of Malagasy dead. Prime Minister Zotsara Rainilaiarivony, his wife Ranavalona III, and all other captured Malagasy dignitaries were exiled. They were sent to the island of Reunion, and then to the abandon colony of Algiers, after Rainilaiarivony died in 1897. Queen Ranavalona III would not return to her home nation again in her life. She died of an embolism in Algiers in 1917 at the long time of 55. Conflict settled down for a few decades. several small insurrections rose and fell, including the ‘Red Toga ‘ Insurrection, a Merina Oligarchy, and two other small rebellions, one in 1898, and another in 1904. A all-out rebellion against the colonial government was launched on March 30, 1947. [ 93 ] The french suppressed it, but around 100,000 Malagasy died in the process. finally, in 1956, Vice-Premier Philibert Tsiranana founded the Social Democratic Party. [ 93 ] The PSD was harmonic to the Merina ‘s cause, and, in response to several more little insurrections between 1956 and 1958, lobbied for Malagasy Freedom in 1958. On September 28, 1958, Madagascar voted successfully for autonomy. On October 14 of the same class, Former Vice-Premier Philibert Tsiranana was proclaimed Head of the new government. [ 94 ]

Kingdom of Madagascar [edit ]

Upon its emergence in the early seventeenth century, the highland kingdom of Imerina was initially a minor baron relative to the larger coastal kingdoms [ 92 ] and grew even weaker in the early eighteenth hundred when King Andriamasinavalona divided it among his four sons. Following about a hundred of warring and dearth, Imerina was reunited in 1793 by King Andrianampoinimerina ( 1787-1810 ). [ 95 ] From his initial capital Ambohimanga, [ 96 ] and late from the Rova of Antananarivo, this Merina king quickly expanded his rule over adjacent principalities. His ambition to bring the entire island under his control was largely achieved by his son and successor, King Radama I ( 1810–28 ), who was recognized by the british government as King of Madagascar. Radama concluded a treaty in 1817 with the british governor of Mauritius to abolish the lucrative slave deal in return for british military and fiscal aid. Artisan missionary envoys from the London Missionary Society began arriving in 1818 and included such keystone figures as James Cameron, David Jones and David Griffiths, who established schools, transcribed the Malagasy language using the Roman rudiment, translated the Bible, and introduced a variety of new technologies to the island. [ 97 ] Radama ‘s successor, Queen Ranavalona I ( 1828–61 ), responded to increasing political and cultural invasion on the depart of Britain and France by issuing a royal edict prohibiting the practice of Christianity in Madagascar and pressuring most foreigners to leave the territory. William Ellis ( missionary ) described his visits made during her predominate in his koran Three Visits to Madagascar during the years 1853, 1854, and 1856. The Queen made heavy habit of the traditional practice of fanompoana ( forced labor as tax payment ) to complete public works projects and develop a standing united states army of between 20,000 and 30,000 Merina soldiers, whom she deployed to pacify outlying regions of the island and further expand the Kingdom of Merina to encompass most of Madagascar. Residents of Madagascar could accuse one another of versatile crimes, including larceny, Christianity and particularly witchcraft, for which the ordeal of tangena was routinely obligatory. between 1828 and 1861, the tangena ordeal caused about 3,000 deaths annually. In 1838, it was estimated that deoxyadenosine monophosphate many as 100,000 people in Imerina died as a consequence of the tangena ordeal, constituting approximately 20 percentage of the population. [ 98 ] The combination of regular war, disease, difficult forced labor, and harsh measures of judge resulted in a high deathrate rate among soldiers and civilians alike during her 33-year reign, the population of Madagascar is estimated to have declined from around 5 million to 2.5 million between 1833 and 1839. [ 99 ] Among those who continued to reside in Imerina were Jean Laborde, an entrepreneur who developed munitions and early industries on behalf of the monarchy, and Joseph-François Lambert, a french adventurer and slave trader, with whom then-Prince Radama II signed a controversial craft agreement termed the Lambert Charter. Succeeding his mother, Radama II ( 1861–63 ) attempted to relax the queen ‘s rigorous policies, but was overthrown two years belated by Prime Minister Rainivoninahitriniony ( 1852-1865 ) and an alliance of Andriana ( noble ) and Hova ( common ) courtiers, who sought to end the absolute power of the sovereign. [ 30 ] Following the coup d’etat, the courtiers offered Radama ‘s queen, Rasoherina ( 1863–68 ), the opportunity to rule, if she would accept a office sharing placement with the Prime Minister : a new social contract that would be sealed by a political marriage between them. [ 100 ] Queen Rasoherina accepted, first marry Rainivoninahitriniony, then late deposing him and marrying his brother, Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony ( 1864–95 ), who would go on to marry Queen Ranavalona II ( 1868–83 ) and Queen Ranavalona III ( 1883–97 ) in succession. [ 101 ] Over the path of Rainilaiarivony ‘s 31-year tenure as choice minister, numerous policies were adopted to modernize and consolidate the power of the central politics. [ 102 ] Schools were constructed throughout the island and attendance was made mandatary. Army constitution was improved and british consultants were employed to train and professionalize soldiers. [ 103 ] Polygamy was outlawed and Christianity, declared the official religion of the motor hotel in 1869, was adopted aboard traditional belief among a growing helping of the populace. [ 102 ] Legal codes were reformed on the basis of british common law and three European-style courts were established in the capital city. [ 103 ] In his joint function as Commander-in-Chief, Rainilaiarivony besides successfully ensured the defense of Madagascar against respective french colonial incursions. [ 103 ]

french colonization [edit ]

primarily on the basis that the Lambert Charter had not been respected, France invaded Madagascar in 1883 in what became known as the first Franco-Hova War. [ 104 ] At the end of the war, Madagascar ceded the northerly port town of Antsiranana ( Diego Suarez ) to France and paid 560,000 francs to Lambert ‘s heir. [ 105 ] In 1890, the british accepted the wide formal imposition of a french protectorate on the island, but french authority was not acknowledged by the government of Madagascar. To force capitulation, the french bombarded and occupied the harbor of Toamasina on the east coast, and Mahajanga on the west coast, in December 1894 and January 1895 respectively. [ 106 ] A french military flying column then marched toward Antananarivo, losing many men to malaria and early diseases. Reinforcements came from Algeria and Sub-Saharan Africa. Upon reaching the city in September 1895, the column bombarded the royal palace with big weapon, causing heavy casualties and leading Queen Ranavalona III to surrender. [ 107 ] France annexed Madagascar in 1896 and declared the island a colony the trace year, dissolving the Merina monarchy and sending the royal class into exile on Réunion Island and to Algeria. A biennial resistor motion organized in response to the french appropriate of the royal palace was efficaciously put down at the conclusion of 1897. [ 108 ] The seduction was followed by ten years of civil war, due to the Menalamba rebellion. The “ pacification ” carried out by the french administration lasted more than fifteen years, in response to the rural guerrilla scattered throughout the country. In total, the repression of this resistance to colonial seduction caused several tens of thousands of Malagasy victims. [ 109 ] Under colonial predominate, plantations were established for the production of a assortment of export crops. [ 110 ] Slavery was abolished in 1896 and approximately 500,000 slaves were freed ; many remained in their former masters ‘ homes as servants [ 111 ] or as sharecroppers ; in many parts of the island strong discriminative views against slave descendants are still held today. [ 112 ] Wide paved boulevards and gathering places were constructed in the capital city of Antananarivo [ 113 ] and the Rova palace intensify was turned into a museum. [ 114 ] Additional schools were built, particularly in rural and coastal areas where the schools of the Merina had not reached. department of education became compulsory between the ages of 6 to 13 and focused chiefly on french language and practical skills. [ 115 ]
[116] National monument in Moramanga commemorating the Malagasy Uprising on 29 March 1947, in which up to 90,000 local residents were killed by the french. Huge mining and forestry concessions were granted to bombastic companies. native chiefs loyal to the french administration were besides granted function of the land. Forced british labour party was introduced in prefer of the french companies and peasants were encouraged, through tax income, to work for wages ( specially in the colonial concessions ) to the detriment of little individual farms. however, the colonial time period was accompanied by movements fighting for independence : the Menalamba, the Vy Vato Sakelika, the democratic Movement for Malagasy Renovation ( MDRM ). In 1927, major demonstrations were organized in Antananarivo, notably on the enterprise of the communist militant François Vittori, who was imprisoned as a result.55 The 1930s saw the anti-colonial movement in Madagascar. The 1930s saw the Malagasy anti-colonial movement advance further momentum. Malagasy trade unionism began to appear clandestine and the Communist Party of the Madagascar region was formed. But in 1939, all the organizations were dissolved by the administration of the colony, which opted for the Vichy government. The MDRM was accused by the colonial regimen of being at the origin of the 1947 rebellion and was pursued by crimson repression. [ 117 ] The Merina royal tradition of taxes paid in the form of labor movement was continued under the french and used to construct a railroad track and roads linking key coastal cities to Antananarivo. [ 118 ] Malagasy troops fought for France in World War I. [ 23 ] In the 1930s, Nazi political thinkers developed the Madagascar plan that had identified the island as a potential site for the deportation of Europe ‘s Jews. [ 119 ] During the second World War, the island was the site of the Battle of Madagascar between the Vichy French and an Allied expeditionary coerce. [ 120 ] The occupation of France during the second World War tarnished the prestige of the colonial administration in Madagascar and galvanized the growing independence movement, leading to the Malagasy Uprising of 1947. [ 121 ] This movement led the french to establish reformed institutions in 1956 under the Loi Cadre ( Overseas Reform Act ), and Madagascar moved peacefully towards independence. [ 122 ] The Malagasy Republic was proclaimed on 14 October 1958, as an autonomous state of matter within the french Community. A time period of probationary government ended with the adoption of a constitution in 1959 and entire independence on 26 June 1960. [ 123 ]

independent state [edit ]

Since regaining independence, Madagascar has transitioned through four republics with corresponding revisions to its constitution. The First Republic ( 1960–72 ), under the leadership of French-appointed President Philibert Tsiranana, was characterized by a continuance of strong economic and political ties to France. many high-level technical positions were filled by french expatriates, and french teachers, textbooks and course of study continued to be used in schools around the state. democratic resentment over Tsiranana ‘s tolerance for this “ neo-colonial ” arrangement inspired a series of farmer and scholar protests that overturned his administration in 1972. [ 30 ] Gabriel Ramanantsoa, a major general in the united states army, was appointed interim president and prime curate that same year, but broken public approval forced him to step down in 1975. Colonel Richard Ratsimandrava, appointed to succeed him, was assassinated six days into his tenure. general Gilles Andriamahazo ruled after Ratsimandrava for four months before being replaced by another military appointee : Vice Admiral Didier Ratsiraka, who ushered in the Socialist-Marxist Second Republic that ran under his tenure from 1975 to 1993. This period saw a political alignment with the easterly Bloc countries and a stir toward economic insulation. These policies, coupled with economic pressures stemming from the 1973 petroleum crisis, resulted in the rapid crack up of Madagascar ‘s economy and a sharp refuse in survive standards, [ 30 ] and the state had become completely bankrupt by 1979. The Ratsiraka presidency accepted the conditions of transparency, anti-corruption measures and free commercialize policies imposed by the International Monetary Fund, World Bank and versatile bilateral donors in exchange for their bailout of the state ‘s break economy. [ 124 ] Ratsiraka ‘s dwindling popularity in the deep 1980s reached a critical charge in 1991 when presidential guards opened fuel on unarmed protesters during a rally. Within two months, a transitional government had been established under the leadership of Albert Zafy ( 1993–96 ), who went on to win the 1992 presidential elections and inaugurate the Third Republic ( 1992-2010 ). [ 125 ] The new Madagascar constitution established a multi-party majority rule and a separation of powers that placed significant master in the hands of the National Assembly. The new constitution besides emphasized homo rights, social and political freedoms, and spare trade. [ 30 ] Zafy ‘s term, however, was marred by economic decline, allegations of corruption, and his introduction of legislation to give himself greater powers. He was consequently impeached in 1996, and an interim president, Norbert Ratsirahonana, was appointed for the three months anterior to the future presidential election. Ratsiraka was then voted back into world power on a platform of decentralization and economic reforms for a second term which lasted from 1996 to 2001. [ 124 ] The contest 2001 presidential elections in which then-mayor of Antananarivo, Marc Ravalomanana, finally emerged victorious, caused a seven-month draw in 2002 between supporters of Ravalomanana and Ratsiraka. The damaging economic impact of the political crisis was gradually overcome by Ravalomanana ‘s progressive economic and political policies, which encouraged investments in education and ecotourism, facilitated extraneous direct investment, and cultivated trade partnerships both regionally and internationally. National GDP grew at an average rate of 7 percentage per class under his administration. In the late half of his second term, Ravalomanana was criticised by domestic and international observers who accused him of increasing dictatorship and corruption. [ 124 ] opposition leader and then-mayor of Antananarivo, Andry Rajoelina, led a movement in early 2009 in which Ravalomanana was pushed from power in an unconstitutional serve wide condemned as a coup d’état. [ 126 ] In March 2009, Rajoelina was declared by the Supreme Court as the President of the High Transitional Authority, an interim govern torso creditworthy for moving the state toward presidential elections. In 2010, a fresh constitution was adopted by referendum, establishing a Fourth Republic, which sustained the democratic, multi-party structure established in the former constitution. [ 125 ] Hery Rajaonarimampianina was declared the winner of the 2013 presidential election, which the international residential district deemed fair and transparent. [ 127 ] In 2018 the first round of the presidential election was held on 7 November and the second round was held on 10 December. Three former presidents and the most late president were the main candidates of the elections. Former president of the united states Andry Rajoelina won the second base round of the elections. He was previously president of the united states from 2009 to 2014. Former president Marc Ravalomana lost the second gear round and he did not accept the results because of allegations of fraud. Ravalomana was president from 2002 to 2009. The most recent president Hery Rajaonarimampianina received very meek support in the first polish. In January 2019 the High Constitutional Court declared Rajoelina as the winner of the elections and the new president. [ 128 ] [ 129 ] [ 130 ] In June 2019 parliamentary elections the party of president of the united states Andry Rajoelina won absolute majority of the seats of the National Assembly. It received 84 seats and the supporters of former president Ravalomana got only 16 seats of 151 seats of the National Assembly. 51 seats of deputies were freelancer or represented little parties. President Rajoelina could rule as a strongman. [ 131 ]

government [edit ]

structure [edit ]

Antananarivo is the political and economic capital of Madagascar. Madagascar is a semi-presidential representative democratic multi-party republic, wherein the popularly elected president of the united states is the head of state and selects a choice minister, who recommends candidates to the president to form his cabinet of ministers. According to the constitution, administrator power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in the ministerial cabinet, [ 132 ] the Senate and the National Assembly, although in world these two latter bodies have very little office or legislative function. The united states constitution establishes mugwump administrator, legislative and discriminative branches and mandates a popularly elected president of the united states limited to three five-year terms. [ 23 ] The public directly elects the president and the 127 members of the National Assembly to five-year terms. All 33 members of the Senate serve six-year terms, with 22 senators elected by local officials and 11 appointed by the president. The last National Assembly election was held on 20 December 2013 [ 23 ] and the last Senate election was held on 30 December 2015. [ 133 ] At the local anesthetic flat, the island ‘s 22 provinces are administered by a governor and peasant council. Provinces are far subdivided into regions and communes. The judiciary is modeled on the french system, with a High Constitutional Court, High Court of Justice, Supreme Court, Court of Appeals, condemnable tribunals, and tribunals of first exemplify. [ 134 ] The courts, which adhere to civil law, lack the capacity to cursorily and transparently try the cases in the judicial organization, often forcing defendants to pass drawn-out pretrial detentions in unsanitary and overcrowd prisons. [ 135 ] Antananarivo is the administrative capital and largest city of Madagascar. [ 23 ] It is located in the highlands region, near the geographic center of the island. King Andrianjaka founded Antananarivo as the capital of his Imerina Kingdom around 1610 or 1625 upon the site of a appropriate Vazimba capital on the hilltop of Analamanga. [ 85 ] As Merina authority expanded over neighbor Malagasy peoples in the early nineteenth century to establish the Kingdom of Madagascar, Antananarivo became the center of presidency for virtually the entire island. In 1896 the french colonizers of Madagascar adopted the Merina capital as their center of colonial administration. The city remained the capital of Madagascar after regaining independence in 1960. In 2017, the capital ‘s population was estimated at 1,391,433 inhabitants. [ 136 ] The adjacent largest cities are Antsirabe ( 500,000 ), Toamasina ( 450,000 ) and Mahajanga ( 400,000 ). [ 23 ]

Politics [edit ]

Since Madagascar gained independence from France in 1960, the island ‘s political transitions have been marked by numerous popular protests, respective disputed elections, an impeachment, two military coups and one assassination. The island ‘s perennial political crises are much prolonged, with damaging effects on the local anesthetic economy, international relations and Malagasy surviving standards. The eight-month draw between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana following the 2001 presidential elections price Madagascar millions of dollars in lost tourism and trade tax income ampere well as damage to infrastructure, such as fail bridges and buildings damaged by arson. [ 137 ] A series of protests led by Andry Rajoelina against Ravalomanana in early 2009 became violent, with more than 170 people killed. [ 138 ] Modern politics in Madagascar are colored by the history of Merina conquest of coastal communities under their rule in the nineteenth century. The attendant tension between the upland and coastal populations has sporadically flared up into isolated events of ferocity. [ 139 ]

Madagascar has historically been perceived as being on the margin of mainstream African affairs despite being a establish member of the Organisation of African Unity, which was established in 1963 and dissolved in 2002 to be replaced by the African Union. Madagascar was not permitted to attend the first African Union summit because of a dispute over the results of the 2001 presidential election, but rejoined the African Union in July 2003 after a 14-month suspension. Madagascar was again suspended by the African Union in March 2009 following the unconstitutional transfer of executive power to Rajoelina. [ 140 ] Madagascar is a penis of the International Criminal Court with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of auspices for the United States military. [ 23 ] Eleven countries have established embassies in Madagascar, including France, the United Kingdom, the United States, China and India, [ 141 ] while Madagascar has embassies in sixteen other countries. Human rights in Madagascar are protected under the constitution and the state of matter is a signer to numerous international agreements including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the Convention on the Rights of the Child. [ 142 ] Religious, ethnic and sexual minorities are protected under the law. Freedom of affiliation and assembly are besides guaranteed under the law, although in drill the defense of permits for public assembly has occasionally been used to impede political demonstrations. [ 69 ] [ 142 ] torture by security forces is rare and department of state repression is low proportional to other countries with comparably few legal safeguards, although arbitrary arrests and the corruption of military and patrol officers remain problems. Ravalomanana ‘s 2004 universe of BIANCO, an anti-corruption chest of drawers, resulted in reduce corruption among Antananarivo ‘s lower-level bureaucrats in particular, although high-level officials have not been prosecuted by the agency. [ 69 ] Accusations of media censoring have risen ascribable to the alleged restrictions on the coverage of politics opposition. [ 143 ] Some journalists have been arrested for allegedly spreading juke news program. [ 144 ]

military and law enforcement [edit ]

The rise of centralize kingdoms among the Sakalava, Merina and other ethnic groups produced the island ‘s inaugural standing armies by the sixteenth hundred, initially equipped with spears but subsequently with muskets, cannons and early firearms. [ 145 ] By the early nineteenth century, the Merina sovereign of the Kingdom of Madagascar had brought a lot of the island under their manipulate by mobilizing an united states army of train and armed soldiers numbering deoxyadenosine monophosphate high as 30,000. [ 146 ] french attacks on coastal towns in the late part of the hundred prompted then-Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony to solicit british aid to provide coach to the Merina monarchy ‘s army. Despite the educate and leadership provided by british military advisers, the Malagasy united states army was unable to withstand french weaponry and was forced to surrender following an attack on the royal palace at Antananarivo. Madagascar was declared a colony of France in 1897. [ 147 ] The political independence and sovereignty of the Malagasy armed forces, which comprises an army, united states navy and breeze force, was restored with independence from France in 1960. [ 148 ] Since this clock time the Malagasy military has never engaged in armed conflict with another state or within its own borders, but has occasionally intervened to restore arrange during periods of political unrest. Under the socialistic Second Republic, Admiral Didier Ratsiraka instated mandate national armed or civil service for all youthful citizens regardless of arouse, a policy that remained in effect from 1976 to 1991. [ 149 ] [ 150 ] The armed forces are under the commission of the Minister of Defense and have remained largely neutral during times of political crisis, as during the protracted repulsion between incumbent Ratsiraka and challenger Marc Ravalomanana in the quarrel 2001 presidential elections, when the military refused to intervene in party favor of either candidate. This tradition was broken in 2009, when a segment of the army defected to the side of Andry Rajoelina, then-mayor of Antananarivo, in hold of his attempt to force President Ravalomanana from exponent. [ 69 ] The Minister of Interior is creditworthy for the national police force, paramilitary force ( gendarmerie ) and the secret police. [ 134 ] The police and gendarmerie are stationed and administered at the local anesthetic floor. however, in 2009 fewer than a one-third of all communes had access to the services of these security forces, with most lacking local-level headquarters for either corps. [ 151 ] Traditional residential district tribunals, called dina, are presided over by elders and other respect figures and remain a key means by which judge is served in rural areas where state presence is weak. historically, security has been relatively high across the island. [ 69 ] Violent crime rates are low, and condemnable activities are predominantly crimes of opportunity such as pickpocketing and junior-grade larceny, although child prostitution, homo traffic and the production and sale of cannabis and other illegal drugs are increasing. [ 134 ] Budget cuts since 2009 have badly impacted the national patrol wedge, producing a exorbitant addition in criminal natural process in holocene years. [ 69 ]

administrative divisions [edit ]

Madagascar is subdivided into 22 regions ( faritra ). [ 23 ] The regions are far subdivided into 119 districts, 1,579 communes, and 17,485 fokontany. [ 151 ]

Largest cities and towns [edit ]

agriculture has long influenced settlement on the island. only 15 % of the nation ‘s 24,894,551 population alive in the 10 largest cities .

United Nations participation [edit ]

Madagascar became a penis express of the United Nations on 20 September 1960, shortly after gaining its independence on 26 June 1960. [ 155 ] As of January 2017, 34 patrol officers from Madagascar are deployed in Haiti as function of the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti. [ 156 ] Starting in 2015, under the steering of and with aid from the UN, the World Food Programme started the Madagascar Country Programme with the two main goals of long-run development and reconstruction efforts, and addressing the food insecurity issues in the southerly regions of Madagascar. [ 157 ] These goals plan to be accomplished by providing meals for specific schools in rural and urban priority areas and by developing national school feeding policies to increase consistency of nutriment throughout the nation. Small and local anesthetic farmers have besides been assisted in increasing both the quantity and quality of their production, arsenic well as improving their crop yield in unfavorable weather conditions. [ 157 ] In 2017, Madagascar signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. [ 158 ]

economy [edit ]

A proportional representation of Madagascar ‘s exports in 2019 During the era of Madagascar ‘s First Republic, France heavily influenced Madagascar ‘s economic planning and policy and served as its winder deal partner. cardinal products were cultivated and distributed nationally through producers ‘ and consumers ‘ cooperatives. Government initiatives such as a rural development platform and state farms were established to boost product of commodities such as rice, coffee, cattle, silk and decoration oil. democratic dissatisfaction over these policies was a key factor in launching the socialist-Marxist Second Republic, in which the once private bank and indemnity industries were nationalized ; country monopolies were established for such industries as textiles, cotton and exponent ; and import–export trade and transportation were brought under department of state control. Madagascar ‘s economy cursorily deteriorated as exports fell, industrial production dropped by 75 percentage, ostentation spiked and politics debt increased ; the rural population was soon reduced to living at subsistence levels. Over 50 percentage of the nation ‘s export gross was spent on debt service. [ 29 ] The IMF forced Madagascar ‘s government to accept morphologic adaptation policies and liberalization of the economy when the country became bankrupt in 1982 and collectivist industries were gradually privatized over the course of the 1980s. The political crisis of 1991 led to the suspension of IMF and World Bank aid. Conditions for the resumption of help were not met under Zafy, who tried unsuccessfully to attract other forms of tax income for the State before help was once again resumed under the interim government established upon Zafy ‘s impeachment. The IMF agreed to write off half Madagascar ‘s debt in 2004 under the Ravalomanana administration. Having met a set of rigorous economic, administration and human rights criteria, Madagascar became the first gear country to benefit from the Millennium Challenge Account in 2005. [ 23 ]
Nosy Iranja is one of the international tourism destinations in Madagascar Madagascar ‘s GDP in 2015 was estimated at US $ 9.98 billion, with a per head GDP of $ 411.82. [ 159 ] [ 160 ] approximately 69 percentage of the population lives below the national poverty tune doorsill of one dollar per day. [ 161 ] During 2011–15, the average emergence rate was 2.6 % but was expected to have reached 4.1 % in 2016, due to populace works programs and a growth of the serve sector. [ 162 ] The agriculture sector constituted 29 percentage of Malagasy GDP in 2011, while manufacturing formed 15 percentage of GDP. Madagascar ‘s other sources of growth are tourism, farming and the extractive industries. [ 163 ] Tourism focuses on the niche eco-tourism market, capitalizing on Madagascar ‘s singular biodiversity, uncorrupted natural habitats, home parks and lemur species. [ 164 ] An estimate 365,000 tourists visited Madagascar in 2008, but the sector declined during the political crisis with 180,000 tourists visiting in 2010. [ 163 ] however, the sector has been growing steadily for a few years ; In 2016, 293,000 tourists landed in the African island with an increase of 20 % compared to 2015 ; For 2017 the country has the goal of reaching 366,000 visitors, while for 2018 government estimates are expected to reach 500,000 annual tourists. [ 165 ] The island is still a identical poor country in 2018 ; morphologic brakes remain in the development of the economy : corruption and the shackles of the public administration, lack of legal certainty, and retardation of land legislation. The economy, however, has been growing since 2011, with GDP growth exceeding 4 % per year ; [ 166 ] [ 167 ] about all economic indicators are growing, the GDP per caput was around $ 1600 ( PPP ) for 2017, [ 168 ] one of the lowest in the universe, although growing since 2012 ; unemployment was besides cut, which in 2016 was equal to 2.1 % [ 169 ] with a work wedge of 13.4 million as of 2017. [ 170 ] The independent economic resources of Madagascar are tourism, textiles, farming, and mine. Poverty affects 92 % of the population in 2017. The state ranks fourth in the world in terms of chronic malnutrition. about one in two children under the senesce of five is stunted. In addition, Madagascar is among the five countries where access to water is the most difficult for the population. Twelve million people do not have access to clean water, according to the NGO WaterAid. [ 171 ]

natural resources and craft [edit ]

[172] play animals made from raffia, a native handle Madagascar ‘s natural resources include a assortment of agricultural and mineral products. Agriculture ( including the originate of raffia ), mine, fishing and forestry are mainstays of the economy. In 2017 the top exports were vanilla ( US $ 894M ), nickel metal ( US $ 414M ), cloves ( US $ 288M ), knitted sweaters ( US $ 184M ) and cobalt ( US $ 143M ). [ 173 ] madagascar is the worldly concern ‘s principal supplier of vanilla, cloves [ 174 ] and ilang-ilang. [ 31 ] The island supplies 80 % of the world ‘s natural vanilla. [ 175 ] early key agrarian resources include coffee bean, lychees and shrimp. Key mineral resources include versatile types of precious and semi-precious stones, and it presently provides half of the world ‘s provision of sapphires, which were discovered near Ilakaka in the late 1990s. [ 176 ] madagascar has one of the worldly concern ‘s largest reserves of ilmenite ( titanium ore ), american samoa well as authoritative reserves of chromite, char, cast-iron, cobalt, copper and nickel. [ 29 ] respective major projects are afoot in the mining, anoint and gasoline sectors that are anticipated to give a significant boost to the Malagasy economy. These include such projects as ilmenite and zircon mining from heavy mineral sands near Tôlanaro by Rio Tinto, [ 177 ] extraction of nickel by the Ambatovy mine near Moramanga and its process near Toamasina by Sherritt International, [ 178 ] and the development of the giant inshore heavy anoint deposits at Tsimiroro and Bemolanga by Madagascar Oil. [ 179 ] Exports formed 28 percentage of GDP in 2009. [ 23 ] Most of the state ‘s export tax income is derived from the textiles industry, fish and shellfish, vanilla, cloves and other foodstuffs. [ 163 ] France is the nation ‘s main trade partner, although the United States, Japan and Germany besides have strong economic ties. [ 29 ] The Madagascar-U.S. Business Council was formed in May 2003, as a collaboration between USAID and Malagasy craftsman producers to support the export of local handicrafts to foreign markets. [ 180 ] Imports of such items as foodstuffs, fuel, capital goods, vehicles, consumer goods and electronics consume an calculate 52 percentage of GDP. The independent sources of Madagascar ‘s imports include China, [ 181 ] France, Iran, Mauritius and Hong Kong. [ 23 ]

infrastructure and media [edit ]

A news stand in Antananarivo In 2010, Madagascar had approximately 7,617 km ( 4,730 secret intelligence service ) of paved roads, 854 kilometer ( 530 secret intelligence service ) of railways and 432 kilometer ( 270 nautical mile ) of navigable waterways. [ 13 ] The majority of roads in Madagascar are unpaved, with many becoming impassable in the showery season. largely pave national routes connect the six largest regional towns to Antananarivo, with minor paved and unpaved routes providing access to other population centers in each zone. [ 30 ] There are several train lines. Antananarivo is connected to Toamasina, Ambatondrazaka and Antsirabe by rail, and another track line connects Fianarantsoa to Manakara. The most significant seaport in Madagascar is located on the east slide at Toamasina. Ports at Mahajanga and Antsiranana are importantly less use because of their farness. [ 30 ] The island ‘s newest port at Ehoala, constructed in 2008 and privately managed by Rio Tinto, will come under express control upon completion of the party ‘s mine project near Tôlanaro around 2038. [ 177 ] Air Madagascar services the island ‘s many small regional airports, which offer the lone virtual means of access to many of the more remote control regions during showery season road washouts. [ 30 ] Running urine and electricity are supplied at the national level by a government service supplier, Jirama, which is ineffective to service the integral population. As of 2009, only 6.8 percentage of Madagascar ‘s fokontany had access to water provided by Jirama, while 9.5 percentage had access to its electricity services. [ 151 ] Fifty-six percentage of Madagascar ‘s ability is provided by hydroelectric power plants, with the remaining 44 % provided by diesel engine generators. [ 182 ] Mobile telephone and internet access are far-flung in urban areas but remain limit in rural parts of the island. approximately 30 % of the districts are able to access the nations ‘ respective private telecommunications networks via mobile telephones or bring lines. [ 151 ] radio broadcasts remain the chief means by which the Malagasy population access international, national, and local news. alone submit radio broadcasts are transmitted across the entire island. Hundreds of public and individual stations with local anesthetic or regional scope provide alternatives to country circulate. [ 135 ] In addition to the express television receiver channel, a kind of privately owned television stations broadcast local and international programming throughout Madagascar. several media outlets are owned by political partisans or politicians themselves, including the media groups MBS ( owned by Ravalomanana ) and Viva ( owned by Rajoelina ), [ 69 ] contributing to political polarization in coverage. The media have historically come under varying degrees of imperativeness to censor their criticism of the government. Reporters are occasionally threatened or harassed, and media outlets are sporadically forced to close. [ 135 ] Accusations of media censoring have increased since 2009 because of the alleged intensification of restrictions on political criticism. [ 142 ] Access to the internet has grown dramatically over the past decade, with an estimated 352,000 residents of Madagascar accessing the internet from home or in one of the nation ‘s many internet cafés in December 2011. [ 135 ]

Health [edit ]

[151] Maternal deathrate declined after 1990 but rose sharply after 2009 because of political instability. checkup centers, dispensaries, and hospitals are found throughout the island, although they are concentrated in urban areas and particularly in Antananarivo. Access to medical care remains beyond the reach of many Malagasy, specially in the rural areas, and many recourse to traditional healers. [ 183 ] In accession to the high expense of medical care relative to the average Malagasy income, the prevalence of trained medical professionals remains extremely first gear. In 2010, Madagascar had an average of three hospital beds per 10,000 people and a entire of 3,150 doctors, 5,661 nurses, 385 community health workers, 175 pharmacists, and 57 dentists for a population of 22 million. Fifteen percentage of government spend in 2008 was directed toward the health sector. approximately 70 percentage of spend on health was contributed by the government, while 30 percentage originated with international donors and other private sources. [ 184 ] The politics provides at least one basic health center per commune. Private health centers are concentrated within urban areas and particularly those of the central highlands. [ 151 ] Despite these barriers to access, health services have shown a swerve toward improvement over the past twenty years. child immunizations against such diseases as hepatitis B, diphtheria, and measles increased an average of 60 percentage in this menstruation, indicating abject but increasing handiness of basic medical services and treatments. The Malagasy fertility rate in 2009 was 4.6 children per charwoman, declining from 6.3 in 1990. adolescent pregnancy rates of 14.8 percentage in 2011, a lot higher than the african average, are a contribute factor to rapid population growth. [ 184 ] In 2010, the parental mortality rate was 440 per 100,000 births, compared to 373.1 in 2008 and 484.4 in 1990, indicating a refuse in perinatal wish following the 2009 coup d’etat. The baby deathrate rate in 2011 was 41 per 1,000 births, [ 23 ] with an under-five deathrate pace at 61 per 1,000 births. [ 185 ] Schistosomiasis, malaria, and sexually transmitted diseases are common in Madagascar, although infection rates of AIDS remain low proportional to many countries in mainland Africa, at 0.2 percentage of the adult population. The malaria mortality rate is besides among the lowest in Africa at 8.5 deaths per 100,000 people, in contribution because of the highest frequency practice of insecticide treated nets in Africa. [ 184 ] Adult life anticipation in 2009 was 63 years for men and 67 years for women. [ 184 ] Madagascar had outbreaks of the bubonic harass and pneumonic plague in 2017 ( 2575 cases, 221 deaths ) and 2014 ( 263 confirmed cases, 71 deaths ). [ 186 ] In 2019, Madagascar had a measles outbreak, resulting in 118,000 cases and 1,688 deaths. In 2020, Madagascar was besides affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. undernourishment and hunger rates were at 42 % in 2018. [ 187 ]

education [edit ]

prior to the nineteenth century, all education in Madagascar was cozy and typically served to teach practical skills american samoa well as sociable and cultural values, including respect for ancestors and elders. [ 30 ] The first formal European-style school was established in 1818 at Toamasina by members of the London Missionary Society ( LMS ). The LMS was invited by King Radama I to expand its schools throughout Imerina to teach basic literacy and numeracy to aristocratic children. The schools were closed by Ranavalona I in 1835, [ 188 ] but reopened and expanded in the decades after her death. By the end of the nineteenth hundred, Madagascar had the most train and advanced school organization in pre-colonial Sub-Saharan Africa. Access to schooling was expanded in coastal areas during the colonial time period, with french speech and basic work skills becoming the focus of the course of study. During the post-colonial First Republic, a continue reliance on french nationals as teachers, and french as the linguistic process of teaching, displeased those desiring a complete separation from the former colonial power. [ 30 ] consequently, under the socialistic Second Republic, french instructors and other nationals were expelled, Malagasy was declared the speech of instruction, and a large cadre of young Malagasy were quickly trained to teach at remote control rural schools under the mandate biennial national service policy. [ 189 ] This policy, known as malgachization, coincided with a hard economic downturn and a dramatic descent in the quality of department of education. Those schooled during this menstruation by and large failed to master the french speech or many other subjects and struggled to find employment, forcing many to take low-paying jobs in the informal or black market that mired them in deepening poverty. Excepting the brief presidency of Albert Zafy, from 1992 to 1996, Ratsiraka remained in ability from 1975 to 2001 and failed to achieve significant improvements in education throughout his tenure. [ 190 ] education was prioritized under the Ravalomanana administration ( 2002–09 ), and is presently barren and compulsory from ages 6 to 13. [ 191 ] The primary schooling cycle is five years, followed by four years at the lower secondary coil level and three years at the upper secondary coil level. [ 30 ] During Ravalomanana ‘s first term, thousands of new primary schools and extra classrooms were constructed, older buildings were renovated, and tens of thousands of newly primary teachers were recruited and trained. primary school fees were eliminated, and kits containing basic school supplies were distributed to basal students. [ 191 ] Government school construction initiatives have ensured at least one primary school per fokontany and one lower secondary coil school within each commune. At least one upper secondary school is located in each of the larger urban centers. [ 151 ] The three branches of the national populace university are located at Antananarivo, Mahajanga, and Fianarantsoa. These are complemented by public teacher-training colleges and several private universities and technical colleges. [ 30 ] As a solution of increased educational access, registration rates more than doubled between 1996 and 2006. however, education quality is weak, producing high rates of grade repetition and dropout. [ 191 ] education policy in Ravalomanana ‘s second term focused on quality issues, including an increase in minimum education standards for the recruitment of primary teachers from a center school leaving security ( BEPC ) to a high school leaving certificate ( BAC ), and a reformed teacher training broadcast to support the passage from traditional didactic education to student-centered teaching methods to boost scholar learning and engagement in the classroom. [ 192 ] Public consumption on education was 2.8 percentage of GDP in 2014. The literacy rate is estimated at 64.7 %. [ 24 ]

Demographics [edit ]

In 2018, the population of Madagascar was estimated at 26 million, up from 2.2 million in 1900. [ 193 ] [ 194 ] [ 30 ] The annual population growth rate in Madagascar was approximately 2.9 percentage in 2009. [ 23 ] approximately 42.5 percentage of the population is younger than 15 years of long time, while 54.5 percentage are between the ages of 15 and 64. Those aged 65 and older form 3 percentage of the entire population. [ 163 ] entirely two general censuses, in 1975 and 1993, have been carried out after independence. The most dumbly populated regions of the island are the eastern highlands and the eastern coast, contrasting most dramatically with the sparsely populate western plains. [ 30 ]

ethnic groups [edit ]

The Malagasy cultural group forms over 90 percentage of Madagascar ‘s population and is typically divided into 18 heathen subgroups. [ 23 ] Recent DNA research revealed that the genic makeup of the average Malagasy person constitutes an approximately equal blend of Southeast Asian and East African genes, [ 195 ] [ 196 ] although the genetics of some communities show a predominance of Southeast Asian or east african origins or some arab, indian, or european lineage. [ 197 ] southeast asian features – specifically from the southern separate of Borneo – are most prevailing among the Merina of the cardinal highlands, [ 139 ] who form the largest Malagasy heathen subgroup at approximately 26 percentage of the population, while certain communities among the coastal peoples ( jointly called côtiers ) have relatively stronger east african features. The largest coastal heathen subgroups are the Betsimisaraka ( 14.9 percentage ) and the Tsimihety and Sakalava ( 6 percentage each ). [ 30 ]
chinese, amerind and Comoran minorities are give in Madagascar, ampere well as a modest european ( chiefly French ) populace. emigration in the late twentieth century has reduced these minority populations, occasionally in abrupt waves, such as the exodus of Comorans in 1976, following anti-Comoran riots in Mahajanga. [ 30 ] By comparison, there has been no significant emigration of Malagasy peoples. [ 29 ] The number of Europeans has declined since independence, reduced from 68,430 in 1958 [ 122 ] to 17,000 three decades late. There were an estimated 25,000 Comorans, 18,000 Indians, and 9,000 taiwanese life in Madagascar in the mid-1980s. [ 30 ]

Languages [edit ]

A Malagasy child The Malagasy lyric is of malayo-polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island. The numerous dialects of Malagasy, which are broadly mutually intelligible, [ 198 ] can be clustered under one of two subgroups : eastern Malagasy, spoken along the easterly forests and highlands including the Merina dialect of Antananarivo, and westerly Malagasy, spoken across the western coastal plains. The Malagasy language derives from the Southeast Barito languages, with the Ma’anyan language being its closest relative, incorporating numerous Malay and Javanese loanwords. [ 199 ] [ 200 ] french became the official language during the colonial period, when Madagascar came under the authority of France. In the foremost national constitution of 1958, Malagasy and French were named the official languages of the Malagasy Republic. Madagascar is a francophone country, and French is by and large spoken as a second gear linguistic process among the educated population and used for international communication. [ 30 ] No official languages were mentioned in the constitution of 1992, although Malagasy was identified as the home linguistic process. Nonetheless, many sources still claimed that Malagasy and French were official languages, finally leading a citizen to initiate a legal encase against the country in April 2000, on the grounds that the issue of official documents only in the french language was unconstitutional. The High Constitutional Court observed in its decisiveness that, in the absence of a language jurisprudence, French however had the character of an official speech. [ 201 ] In the fundamental law of 2007, Malagasy remained the national terminology while official languages were reintroduced : Malagasy, French, and English. [ 202 ] English was removed as an official lyric from the fundamental law approved by voters in the November 2010 referendum. [ 1 ] The consequence of the referendum, and its consequences for official and national language policy, are not recognized by the political confrontation, who cite lack of transparency and inclusiveness in the way the election was organized by the High Transitional Authority. [ 125 ]

religion [edit ]

Faravohitra Catholic Church in Antananarivo According to the U.S. Department of State in 2011, 41 % of Malagasys practiced Christianity, and 52 % adhered to traditional religions, [ 23 ] which tends to emphasize links between the living and the razana ( ancestors ) ; these numbers were drawn from the 1993 census. however, according to the Pew Research Center in 2010, 85 % of the population now practiced Christianity, while just 4.5 % of Malagasys practiced tribe religions ; among Christians, practitioners of Protestantism outnumbered adherents of Roman Catholicism. [ 203 ] The idolatry of ancestors has led to the far-flung tradition of grave build, adenine good as the highlands rehearse of the famadihana, whereby a die family member ‘s remains are exhumed and re-wrapped in fresh silk shrouds, before being replaced in the grave. The famadihana is an affair to celebrate the beloved ancestor ‘s memory, reunify with family and community, and enjoy a gay atmosphere. Residents of surrounding villages are much invited to attend the party, where food and rum are typically served, and a hiragasy company or other musical entertainment is normally present. [ 204 ] Consideration for ancestors is besides demonstrated through adhesiveness to fady, taboos that are respected during and after the life of the person who establishes them. It is wide believed that by showing deference for ancestors in these ways, they may intervene on behalf of the living. conversely, misfortunes are much attributed to ancestors whose memory or wishes have been neglected. The sacrifice of zebu is a traditional method used to appease or honor the ancestors. In addition, the Malagasy traditionally believe in a godhead deity, called Zanahary or Andriamanitra. [ 205 ] today, many Christians integrate their religious beliefs with traditional ones related to honoring the ancestors. For exemplify, they may bless their dead at church before proceeding with traditional burying rites or invite a christian curate to consecrate a famadihana reburying. [ 204 ] The Malagasy Council of Churches comprises the four oldest and most outstanding christian denominations of Madagascar ( Roman Catholic, Church of Jesus Christ in Madagascar, Lutheran, and Anglican ) and has been an influential force in Malagasy politics. [ 206 ] Islam is besides practiced on the island. Islam was foremost brought to Madagascar in the Middle Ages by Arab and Somali Muslim traders, who established several Islamic schools along the easterly coast. While the use of Arabic script and loanword words and the adoption of Islamic astrology would spread across the island, the Islamic religion took hold in only a handful of southeastern coastal communities. nowadays, Muslims constitute 3–7 percentage of the population of Madagascar and are largely concentrated in the northwestern provinces of Mahajanga and Antsiranana. The huge majority of Muslims are Sunni. Muslims are divided between those of Malagasy ethnicity, Indians, Pakistanis and Comorans. More recently, Hinduism was introduced to Madagascar through Gujarati people immigrating from the Saurashtra region of India in the late nineteenth century. Most Hindus in Madagascar address Gujarati or Hindi at home. [ 207 ]

acculturation [edit ]

Each of the many ethnic subgroups in Madagascar cling to their own set of beliefs, practices and ways of animation that have historically contributed to their unique identities. however, there are a number of core cultural features that are park throughout the island, creating a powerfully unified Malagasy cultural identity. In addition to a common terminology and shared traditional religious beliefs around a creator god and fear of the ancestors, the traditional Malagasy worldview is shaped by values that emphasize fihavanana ( solidarity ), vintana ( destiny ), tody ( karma ), and hasina, a consecrated life force that traditional communities believe imbues and thereby legitimates authority figures within the residential district or family. other cultural elements normally found throughout the island include the practice of male circumcision ; strong kinship ties ; a far-flung belief in the power of charming, diviners, astrology and witch doctors ; and a traditional division of social classes into nobles, commoners, and slaves. [ 30 ] [ 205 ] Although social castes are no longer legally recognized, ancestral caste affiliation often continues to affect social status, economic opportunity, and roles within the community. [ 208 ] Malagasy people traditionally consult Mpanandro ( “ Makers of the Days ” ) to identify the most auspicious days for important events such as weddings or famadihana, according to a traditional astrological system introduced by Arabs. similarly, the nobles of many Malagasy communities in the pre-colonial period would normally employ advisers known as the ombiasy ( from olona-be-hasina, “ serviceman of much virtue ” ) of the southeast Antemoro ethnic group, who trace their ancestry back to early Somali settlers. [ 209 ] The diverse origins of Malagasy acculturation are discernible in its real expressions. The most emblematic musical instrument of Madagascar, the valiha, is a bamboo tube zither carried to Madagascar by early settlers from southern Borneo, and is very exchangeable in form to those found in Indonesia and the Philippines nowadays. [ 210 ] Traditional houses in Madagascar are alike similar to those of southerly Borneo in terms of symbolism and construction, featuring a orthogonal layout with a ailing roof and cardinal support column. [ 211 ] Reflecting a far-flung idolatry of the ancestors, tombs are culturally significant in many regions and tend to be built of more durable material, typically rock, and display more elaborate decoration than the houses of the survive. [ 212 ] The production and weaving of silk can be traced back to the island ‘s earliest settlers, and Madagascar ‘s national trim, the weave lamba, has evolved into a change and complicate artwork. [ 213 ] The Southeast asian cultural influence is besides apparent in Malagasy cuisine, in which rice is consumed at every meal, typically accompanied by one of a variety of flavorful vegetable or kernel dishes. [ 214 ] african influence is reflected in the sacred importance of zebu cattle and their shape of their owner ‘s wealth, traditions originating on the african mainland. Cattle rustle, primitively a ritual of passage for young men in the plains areas of Madagascar where the largest herds of cattle are kept, has become a dangerous and sometimes deadly criminal enterprise as herdsmen in the southwest try to defend their cattle with traditional spears against increasingly armed professional rustlers. [ 82 ]

Arts [edit ]

A wide variety of oral and written literature has developed in Madagascar. One of the island ‘s foremost artistic traditions is its oratory, as expressed in the forms of hainteny ( poetry ), kabary ( populace discourse ) and ohabolana ( proverbs ). [ 215 ] [ 216 ] An epic poem exemplifying these traditions, the Ibonia, has been handed down over the centuries in several different forms across the island, and offers penetration into the divers mythologies and beliefs of traditional Malagasy communities. [ 217 ] This tradition was continued in the twentieth hundred by such artists as Jean-Joseph Rabearivelo, who is considered Africa ‘s first modern poet, [ 218 ] and Elie Rajaonarison, an exemplar of the new brandish of Malagasy poetry. [ 219 ] Madagascar has besides developed a full-bodied musical heritage, embodied in dozens of regional musical genres such as the coastal salegy or upland hiragasy that enliven village gatherings, local dance floors and national airwaves. [ 220 ] Madagascar besides has a growing polish of authoritative music fostered through youth academies, organizations and orchestras that promote youth participation in classical music. The credit card arts are besides far-flung throughout the island. In addition to the custom of silk waver and lamba production, the weaving of raffia and early local anesthetic plant materials has been used to create a wide range of hardheaded items such as floor mats, baskets, purses and hats. [ 180 ] Wood carve is a highly developed artwork phase, with distinct regional styles discernible in the decoration of balcony railings and other architectural elements. Sculptors create a diverseness of furniture and family goods, aloalo funerary posts, and wooden sculptures, many of which are produced for the tourist market. [ 221 ] The cosmetic and functional carpentry traditions of the Zafimaniry people of the central highlands was inscribed on UNESCO ‘s list of intangible cultural heritage in 2008. [ 222 ] Among the Antaimoro people, the product of paper embedded with flowers and other cosmetic natural materials is a long-established custom that the residential district has begun to market to eco-tourists. [ 221 ] Embroidery and drawn thread bring are done by hand to produce clothe, a well as tablecloths and early family textiles for sale in local craft markets. [ 180 ] A small but growing phone number of ticket art galleries in Antananarivo, and several other urban areas, offer paintings by local artists, and annual artwork events, such as the Hosotra alfresco exhibition in the das kapital, lend to the continuing development of fine arts in Madagascar. [ 223 ]

sport [edit ]

Moraingy is a traditional martial art of Madagascar. is a traditional soldierly artwork of Madagascar. A number of traditional pastimes have emerged in Madagascar. Moraingy, a type of hand-to-hand fight, is a democratic spectator pump sport in coastal regions. It is traditionally practiced by men, but women have recently begun to participate. [ 224 ] The wrestle of zebu cattle, which is named savika or tolon-omby, is besides practiced in many regions. [ 225 ] In addition to sports, a wide kind of games are played. Among the most emblematic is fanorona, a board game widespread throughout the Highland regions. According to folk music caption, the sequence of King Andrianjaka after his forefather Ralambo was partially the resultant role of the compulsion that Andrianjaka ‘s older brother may have had with playing fanorona to the detriment of his other responsibilities. [ 226 ] western recreational activities were introduced to Madagascar over the past two centuries. Rugby union is considered the national sport of Madagascar. [ 227 ] Soccer is besides popular. madagascar has produced a world champion in pétanque, a french bet on alike to lawn bowl, which is widely played in urban areas and throughout the Highlands. [ 228 ] School athletics programs typically include soccer, lead and field, judo, packing, women ‘s basketball and women ‘s tennis. Madagascar sent its beginning competitors to the Olympic Games in 1964, and has besides competed in the african Games. [ 29 ] Scouting is represented in Madagascar by its own local federation of three scouting clubs. membership in 2011 was estimated at 14,905. [ 229 ] Because of its promote sports facilities, Antananarivo gained the host rights for respective of Africa ‘s top external basketball events, including the 2011 FIBA Africa Championship, [ 230 ] the 2009 FIBA Africa Championship for Women, [ 231 ] the 2014 FIBA Africa Under-18 Championship, [ 232 ] the 2013 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship, [ 233 ] and the 2015 FIBA Africa Under-16 Championship for Women. [ 234 ] Madagascar ‘s national 3×3 basketball team won the gold decoration at the 2019 african Games .

cuisine [edit ]

Malagasy cuisine reflects the diverse influences of Southeast Asian, African, Indian, Chinese, and european culinary traditions. The complexity of Malagasy meals can range from the simpleton, traditional preparations introduced by the earliest settlers, to the refined festival dishes prepared for the island ‘s 19th-century sovereign. Throughout about the stallion island, the contemporaneous cuisine of Madagascar typically consists of a root of rice ( vary ) served with an escort ( laoka ). The many varieties of laoka may be vegetarian or include animal proteins, and typically feature a sauce flavored with such ingredients as ginger, onion, garlic, tomato, vanilla, coconut milk, strategic arms limitation talks, curry powder, green peppercorns or, less normally, early spices or herb. In parts of the arid south and west, pastorale families may replace rice with gamboge, cassava, or curds made from ferment zebu milk. A wide variety of sweet and savory fritters arsenic well as other street foods are available across the island, as are divers tropical and temperate-climate fruits. locally produced beverages include fruit juices, chocolate, herb tea tea and teas, and alcoholic drinks such as rum, wine, and beer. [ 214 ] Three Horses Beer is the most popular beer on the island [ 235 ] and is considered emblematic of Madagascar. [ 236 ]

See besides [edit ]

Notes [edit ]

References [edit ]

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